Makalah Buku MIDP Bab I (Dr. Dirgantara Wicaksono, M.Pd)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.    Background

Instructional design, or instructional systems design (ISD), is the practice of creating "instructional experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing."^[1] The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally, the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE(Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate). model with the five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology, though recently constructivism has influenced thinking in the field.

B.     Problem Formulation

1.         What is Instructional Design?

2.         What is the parts of Alternatives for Instructional Solution?

3.         How to determining projects appropriate for instructional solutions?

C.    Purpose

1.         Students  may know the meaning of instructional design

2.         Students  may know the parts of Alternatives for Instructional Solution

3.        Students  may know how to determining projects appropriate for instructional solutions

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A.    Instructional Design

Means more than literally creating instruction. Is associated with the broader concept of analyzing human performance problems systematically, identifying the root causes of those problems, considering various solutions to address the root causes, and implementing the solutions in ways designed to minimize the unintended consequences of corrective action.

1.    Instructional Design : An Emerging Profession

Instructional design is an emerging profession because people can–and do–enter jobs as instructional designers and work in that capacity for their entire careers.

2.    Instructional Design: Focused on Establishing and Maintaining Efficient and Effective Human Performance

The chief aim of instructional design is to improve employee performance and to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Instructional designers should be able to define such important terms as performance, efficiency, and effectiveness.

3.    Instructional Design: Guided by a Model of Human Performance

·      Instructional design is guided by a model of human performance.

·      A model is a simplified or abstract representation of a process, device, or concept.

·      A model of human performance is a simplified representation of factors involved in producing work results.

4.    Instructional Design: Carried Out Systematically

·      Instructional design is not just a field.

·      It may also be regarded as a process for examining human performance problems and identifying solutions.

·      The process should not be carried out intuitively; rather, its success depends on systematic application.

·      Instructional designers place their faith in an iterative and systematic process that, viewed holistically, is more powerful than any single part.

5.    Instructional Design: Based on Open Systems Theory

·      Instructional design is based, in part, on open systems theory (Richey, 1993).

·      An open system receives inputs from the environment, transforms them through operations within the system, submits outputs to the environment, and receives feedback indicating how well these functions are carried out.

·      To survive, any open system must gain advantages from its transactions with the environment.

6.    Instructional Design: Oriented to Finding and Applying the Most Cost-Effective Solutions to Human Performance Problems

·      Instructional designers should be certain that there will be a favorable return on any investment in performance improvement efforts.

·      To this end, they may apply any one of many different methods of cost-benefit forecasting and analysis to estimate the expected return (payoff) on the investment.

7.    Criticisms of Traditional Instructional Design Approaches

·      No field of endeavor is immune to criticism.

·      That is as true of instructional design as it is of any field.

·      Since the publication of the first and second editions of this book, critics of traditional instructional system design (ISD) approaches have grown increasingly strident in their complaints about its real and perceived shortcomings.

B.     Alternatives To Instructional Solutions

The world is full of many ways to solve problems. But they can be reduced to two key options. One option is to change individuals by equipping them with new knowledge, skill, or attitude. That approach is the instructional solution. A second option is to change the environment in which individuals carry out their work. That requires management action. Many management solutions have been identified. We shall focus on five only: (1) feedback methods, (2) job performance aids, (3) reward systems, (4) employee selection practices, and (5) organizational redesign. As many as 50 interventions have been well-documented.

Five Frequent Options :

1.         Feedback Methods

Is a continuous process of providing information about an activity, sometimes during the activity itself. Serves two primary purposes. By stimulating people to continue doing more or less of what they are already doing, it influences the quantity of performance; by stimulating people to change how or what they do, it influences the quality of performance.

Feedback is a continuous process of providing information about in activity, sometimes during the activity itself (Nadler, 1977). It serves two primary purposes. First, by simulating people to continue doing more or less of what the are already doing, it influences the quantity of performance (Tosti, 1986). Second, by simulating people to change how or what they do, it influences the quality of performance (Tosti, 1986).

When Should Feedback Be Used To Address A Performance Problem?

Use feedback after thoughtfully pondering these questions (Rummler, 1983, p. 14)

1)      Do employees receive enough information on the consequences of performing as desired? If the answer is no, provide feedback.

2)      Are employees receiving accurate information on the consequences of performing as desired in a way that leads them to believe that their performance is correct? If the answer is no, improve the clarity and accuracy of feedback performers are receiving.

3)      Are employees receiving timely information on the consequences of their performance so that it can be used in time to improve what they are doing or how they are doing it? If the answer is no, improve the timelines of the feedback.

How Should Feedback Be Used In Solving Performance Problem?

The quantity and quality of feedback can be addressed through coaching, production wall chart, memorandums, team meeting, performance appraisals, 360 degree feedback, customer surveys, or even instans messaging. Each of these methods, and others, can affect the quantity or quality of feedback that employees receive about what they do, how well they do it, what results they achieve, or how well their work results match up to desired results. Any approach that can improve the clarity and timeliness of feedback ranks as significant in solving human performance problems.

2.         Job Performance Aids

·         Provides storage outside the user.

·         Can be used in real time.

·         Gives signals to the user.

·         Gives direction.

·         Reduces what people need to remember.

3.         Reward Systems

·         Ties employee actions to positive consequences.

·         Is the means by which an organization attracts people to join, keeps them working, and motivates them to train or perform.

4.         Employee Selection Practions

·         Employee selection practices involve matching people to work for which they are qualified.

·         Employee recruitment, a related activity involves seeking individuals who are qualified for the work and encouraging them to participate in the selection procedure.

5.         Organizational Redesign

·         Organization design is the process of establishing reporting relationships and command structure.

·         Organizational redesign is the process of changing the organization design.

·         It may incorporate job or work redesign.

C.    Determining Projects Appropriate For Instructional Design Solutions

Performance analysis is defined as the process of analyzing human performance problems systematically and identifying their root causes, activities that instructional designer typically call performance analysis or front end analysis. Performance analysis is carried out to distinguishes problems that may be solved by training from problems that require alternative actions.

According to the standards, one competency for instructional design is to conduct a need assessment. It’s regarded as an essential competency. The performance statements associated with this competency indicate that instructional designers should be able to :

a.         Describe the problem and its dimensions, identifying the discrepancies between current and desired performance

b.        Clarify the varying perceptions of need and their implications

c.         Select and use appropriate needs assessment tools and techniques

d.        Determine the possible causes of the problem and potential solutions

e.         Recommended and advocate non instructional solutions when appropriate

f.         Complete a cost benefit analysis for recommended solutions

1.              Labeling  the Parts of Human Performance Problems

The word problem literally means “something thrown forward,” a result of a discrepancy between the actual (What is?) and the ideal (What should be?) that requires present or future action. The actual is called condition, meaning “the existing state of affairs.” The ideal is called criterion, meaning “the desired state of affairs.” The difference between condition and criterion is a gap. The reason for the gap is the problem’s cause; the consequences of the gap are the problem’s symptoms.

To be successful in determining which human performance problems are appropriately addressed through instructions, instructional designers must be able to distinguish among these components. First, collect the information about the condition. It should be easily identified. Simply ask the people about the problem. When people describe what is happening or how employees are performing, they are providing information about condition. Second, identify criterion. It may not be as easily identified as condition. Criterions refers to the desired or ideal state, what should be happening or how people should be performing

2.              Models For Performance Analysis

There are two categories of problem-solving models:

1.    Comprehensive models are useful for scanning “the big picture” of an organization to identify problems.

2.    Situation-specific models provide guidance in dealing with the kind of run-of-the-mill symptoms that prompt managers to request the aid of instructional designers.

a.         Applying a Comprehensive Problem Solving Model : Gilbert’s Performance Matrix

1)      It is called a matrix because it allows instructional designers to examine six different hierarchically ordered performance levels

2)       Each level corresponds to a different value system or vantage point by which performance can be viewed.

3)      Each level contains three related “cells”—models, measures, and methods

4)      Gilbert uses the term model to mean a criterion, ideal, goal, expectation, standard, or objective

5)       A measure is analogous to condition or actual results.

6)      A method is a solution, a way to narrow or close a gap between what is (measure) and what should be (model).

7)      When the matrix is applied to organizational settings, Gilbert suggests using only the three bottom levels of the matrix—Policy (institutional systems), Strategy (job systems), and Tactics (task systems).

b.    Applying a Situation-Specific Problem Solving Model : Mager and Pipe’s Performance Analysis

1)      In a given situation, troubleshoot the cause of the problem and then select an appropriate solution.

2)      Begin by asking questions about the situation.

3)       Collect information about what is happening, what should be happening, the measurable size of the gap, what causes the gap, why the gap is important, and how the gap should be closed.

Review this model step by step. First collect as much information as possible about perfomance problem. Ask qustions such as these :

•      What is the problem ?

•      How many people are affected ?

•      When did the problem fist become evident ?

•      What are the consequences of the problem ?

•      What is happening at present ?

•      How do you know their is a problem ?

•      Who is affected by it ?

•      Where is problem evident ?

3.              Judging Performance Analysis

Instructional design should be able to judge the quality of decision made by others. There are several reasons why. First, the ability to think critically and thus evaluate decisions and actions made by others is usually a demonstration of proficient skill. Second, and more to the point, instructional designers must occasionally review the work of their professional colleagues to ensure that it was performed properly.

In some instances, instructional designers who are assigned late to a project may need to conduct their own abbreviated analysis, a condensed version of a complete performance analysis.

4.              Justifying Performance Analysis

Insctructional designers should always be able to examplain the underlying rationale for their decisions and actions. At least two approaches can be used by instructional designer to justify the results of their performance analyses. They are compatible and can thus be used together.

The first approach is to educate clients about instructional design. This approach works best when there is extended contact between instructional designers and their clients. A second approach is to examplain the assumptions underlyng the decisions made in analyzing a spesific problem, in identifying its causes, and in determining appropriated solutions. This approach seems to work best when the time for  client contact is limited. Instructional designers using this approach should state their assumptions about problem solving up-front, describethe step taken to analyze the problem, and explain the reason for choosing an appropriate solution. This approach appears to work best in written reports oral presentations.

5.              Acting Ethically in Applying Performance Analysis

Ethical issues werw identified as a competency area for instructional designers in the standards. One competency for instructional design is to identify and resolve ethical and legal implications of design in the workplace. A key ethical challenge in applying performance analysis, then can be expressed. It should be recognized that instructional design, whether serving as internal or external consultants, can be accused of and sometimes are acting from self interest.

6.              Applying Performance Analysis Cross-Culturally

All elements of instrucnational design should be examinined for their cross cultural aplications and implications. Doing so is just good business pratice at a time and others have been paying more attetion to cross cultural isue in recent years (see, for example, Borman 2001; Mullis, 2000; Sitze, 2000; VanLeeuwen, 2001; wederspahn, 2002; and Weech, 2001).

While no one approach can be used universally to overcome this problem, instructional designers should verse themselvers in the political  climate of the cultures in wich they function. If the local political climate i a closed one, then in structional designers may find it helpful to enlist a cultural informant-an individual who is trustworthy, is familiar with local cultural conditions, and is able to unbe able to suggest ways to set managers and employers at ease about the performance analysis or offer ideas about innovative approaches that may be used to carry out the same or equivalent process in the culture.

CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A.    Conclusion

The instructional design field is an axciting one that has real potential to improve employee performance and thus enchance organizational productivity, increase competitiveness and eliminate the problems faced by workers who lead lives of quiet desperation amid sometimes chaotic and irritional organizational settings. Mangement solutions should be choosen when human performance problems are caused by deficiencies in the environment. They should also be used when they are more cost effective than such instructional solutions as training, education, or development for addressing deficiencies in knowledges, skills or attitue. As we pointed out in this chapter, five management solutions are frequently used : (1) Feedback Methods, (2) Job Performance Aids, (3) Reward Systems, (4) Employee Selections Practies and (5) Organizational Redesign.

The condition meaning “the existing state of affairs.” The ideal is called criterion, meaning “the desired state of affairs.” The difference between condition and criterion is a gap. The reason for the gap is the problem’s cause; the consequences of the gap are the problem’s symptoms. Various problem solving models have been devised to provided guidance in troubleshooting. All human performance problems stem from just three possible root cause, Deficiencies in knowledge, skills or attitude, Deficiencies the environment and a combination of these.

B.     Recommendation

In writing this paper certainly far from perfect, this is due to the limited experience, skills and knowledge that is in itself the author. Therefore, the authors expect criticism and suggestions from readers for improvement and completeness of this paper.